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F.A.C.T.Net does not sell documents, it only lends them according to the terms of your library cardholder agreement with F.A.C.T.Net, Inc. ===================================================================== Anthony Kales Chester M Pierce Milton Greenblatt Editors The Mosaic of Contemporary Psychia';:ry m Perspective With 14 Illustrations Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest 13 Cults, Coercion, and Contumely Margaret Thaler Singer and Marsha Emmer Addis Rather than focusing on one particular biolo~i- gled to define totalistic grc,ups with destructive cal, social, or psychological aspect of Lo;~is potential so that it is clear to others how these Jolyon West's professional career so far, we syn- organizations differ from various groups whose thesize several of his intellectual foci, as he did, activities represent less pol ential to harm their to show the logical path that drew his interest members. In 1985, as a result of the Wingspread to the challenging, and controversial, world of Conference on Cults and Society (which West modern-day totalistic groups (eg, cults). We directed), a definition was written that clarifies have chosen that background as the framework the cult: around which we deal with the systematic man- ipulation of psychological and social influence Cult (totalist type): A group or movement exhibiting procedures variously known as thought reform, a great or excessive devotion or dedication to some coercive persuasion, and brain washing. person, idea, or thing and employing unethical, man- ipulative or coercive techniques of persuasion and West formulates his opinions within the control designed to advance the goals of the group's domain in which he was trained--that of a leaders, to the possible or actual detriment of mern- physician-psychiatrist. From that vantage bers, their families or the community. x point, he never loses sight of the verity that all life is a living, interacting process. Thus, his This definition focuses on three elements: (1) psychosociopolitical observations are those of a excessively zealous, unquestioning commit- physician who thinks in terms related to health merit to the identity and leo ders of the group by and illness, pain and its alleviation, and incii- the members; (2) exploita'ive manipulation of vidual and public health within the ecosystem of members; and (3) harm or lhe danger of harm.* health and illness. Therefore, totalist cults can be distinguished West's research on hypnosis, on how social from unorthodox, but relatively benign, groups interactions alter physiological responses, and by their actual practices rather than by their be- his studies of prisoners of war and other intense liefs. The definition is meant to acknowledge influence experiences, combined with his stu- that groups may change their characteristics, dies of the psychological components of social becoming more or less cult-like over time, so movements, led him to recognize the social and psychological phenomena that he and others saw in many persons emerging from totalistic *The preceding definition owes much of its heritage groups (see also Chapter 1). He recognized tim to Robert J Lifton aE~d Edgar l I Schcin, whose semi- nal reports of thought reform and coercive persua- generic group influence procedures that were sion in China2.3 helped us explicatc the social and being used and he knew their social, medical, psychological processes used in modern destructive psychological, and public health consequences. cults. In fact, Lifton has applied his concept of ideo- For years we and our colleagues have strug- logical totalism to some cult situations.4 130 !3. Cults, Coercion, and Contumely 131 that each of the three foregoing elements may issues West highlighted in the 1960s are relevant exist to varying degrees at any one time. to our understanding today of the rise and ex- pansion of totalistic groups. In another series of articles,25-33 West almost Cults single-handedly undertook to educate first the military establishment and then mental health West's interest in cults evolved naturally out of professionals and 'he general public about the three life-long pursuits--studies of the physiol- psychological and sociological implications of ~a his efforts to expose the ogy of emotions,5-9 studies of how human in- "brainwashing." ~ teractions impact on physiological reactions and myth that American soldiers were not tough,32 lead toward health or illness, and his sense of West tackled -squarely a national movement social responsibility as a physician. that scapegoated American soldiers by using His work on cults represents a confluence studies of prisoners of war behavior to create of his scientific inquiry into dissociation and anticommunist hysteria. That process led him to hypnosis,~ø-14 sleep deprivation,~s-~s mind- integrate his own findings with the observations altering drugs and hallucinations,~9-24 military of others* and, with colleagues, to add his own survival training,2s-33 and the psychological se- analysis of the key elements in controlling the quelae of social movements.34-38 This earlier behavior of others--debility, dependency, and work has led him in his studies of totalistic dread (the DDD syndrome).27 groups to analyze the effects of cults on indi- Looking at how individual or group behavior- viduals and on society as public health prob- al pathology is dealt with by society, West has lems. recently emphasized two ways that humans West's interest in psychosociopolitical issues avoid understanding and thereby avoid taking (eg, racism, the counterculture, cults, violence, responsibility for pathological behavior that drugs, terrorism and torture) has always had a threatens society: (1) blaming the victim and (2) two-pronged focus--on the affected individual trying to understand a group phenomenon by and on society as a whole. He believes strongly emphasizing its sir,~ilarities to characteristics of that psychiatry should play a leading role in other groups, ratl',er than analyzing the crucial breaking through the bonds of human suffering differences betweep. them (eg, totalist cults com- (a recurrent theme in his writings). In 1969, in pared to established religions). "Ethical Psychiatry and Biosocial Human- West has had no trouble throughout the years isln,''39 he wrote: separating the dangers ofexploitative cults from the positive effects of healthy group experience. If human misery is termed "bad," and health "good," He and Singer4ø clearly specified the differences then slavery is unethical... it is... logical and between cults and communes. A week after the fitting that [psychiatry], growing out of man's dcci- Jonestown massacre, West and Delgado noted sion to care for his most tormented brothers, should that it is possible to distinguish dangerous cults ú.. provide a matrix for the development of a new, more comprehensive ethical system, for which [I from other organizations: propose] the term "biosocial humanism." In fact few, if any, social institutions claiming First Amendment protection use conditioning techniques His studies of the counterculture of the 1960s as i~Elcnsc, deceptive, or pcrvasivc as thost: employed and of the civil rights movement of that same decade explained both the individual's needs to participate in what West and Allen termed the * The body of literatE:re from the 1950s and 1960s on "Three Rebellions: Red [the New Left], Black the effects of thought reform programs on civilian ["Negro" revolt], and Green [Hippies]''36 and and military populatEons both inside and outside of also society's reaction to them. West and Allen prison settings is voluminous. Readers are referred to the works of Albert D Biderman,5ø Lawrence E noted, "While many hippies are highly intelli- Hinkle3, Robert J Lifton2, Edgar Schein3, Julius gent, it is not an intellectual movement . . . it is Segal3, Margaret Thaler Singer89, Martin K Whyte3, a spiritual movement."36 Many of the same and Harold Wolfe.3 132 Thaler Singer and Emmer Addis TABLE 13.1. Cults: West's public health prevention model. Primary Secondary Tertiary Recognition Revelation Rescue missions Religious outreach programs Reckoning Reentry counseling Restoration of traditional Removal Reconstitution of family values relationships Risk factor review Recovery of damages Rehabilitation by many contemporary cults .... The distinction be- menced. West, in his characteristic fashion, had tween established religions and new religious groups not put one word on paper in preparation for his is not difficult to make . . . religions are created for presentation. About 8 hours into the 11-hour the good of their members. Cults . . . appear to exist flight, West pulled a piece of paper out of his for the good of their leaders.4~ pocket and jotted down the outline for his pap- Not only must the potential to exploit be pre- er, "Cults: A Public Health Approach," which sent, but exploitation must be used for a group he presented as a summary of the conference, to be classified as a "cult" under West's defini- and which was published initially in German in tion. the conference proceedings.a6 In the discussion of his chapter "Cults, Liber- Jolly West's facility with the language, his use ty, and Mind Control,''42 West explained why of alliteration as a mnemonic device, and his we blame rape victims and other victims for ability to organize his thoughts were apparent in what others have done to them, using the Peo- the outline. Under the three headings of Pri- ple's Temple as an example. If harm can hit mary, Secondary, and Tertiary Prevention, he anyone randomly, then we all are potential vic- included four topics each. (see Table 13.1). tims. However, if the victim wasresponsible for To this day, no one has conceptualized the bringing the harm to himself, he is different psychosocial problem of cults and how to deal from us, so we feel safe from harm. In trying to with them as clearly and concisely as West did in help people understand that Patricia Hearst was that paper, a revised version of which was sub- a victim rather than a spoiled little rich girl who sequently published by the American Psychiat- enjoyed her rebellious time with the Sym- ticAssociation? bionese Liberation Army, West often points out that she was guilty of three things: being a Hearst, being a woman, and surviving her Coercion: The Current ordeal. To this day, some publications in the Controversy cult literature ,43-45 base their hypotheses on the assumption that people join cults willingly, Nearly 40 years ago, after Mao's revolution in under conditions of fully informed consent, China and the Korean War, studies of coercive thus, becoming themselves responsible for the influence and behavioral control programs be- harm to them that results from cult involve- gan to appear. Thev described the power of ment. these programs to influence cognition, be- Having struggled with these issues intellec- havior, and the mental health status of Chinese tually for some time, the c, pportunity to put the nationals following the revolution in 1949; of disparate concepts into a cohesive theory came United Nations military personnel captured by about in 1981. West and Emmer Addis were North Korean forces; and of Western civilians invited to Bonn, German3 , to participate in the interned in China. The programs were applied International Conference :,n the Effects of New to persons in prison settings, universities, work Totalitarian Religious and Pseudo-Religious places, and other social settings. Neither a jail Movements on Society and Health. Addis had setting nor physical brutality was necessary to completed her paper before the trip com- achieve the desired end. The topic was reported ~3. Cults, Coercion, and Contumely 133 TABLE 13.2. Terms and concepts relevant to thought Thought reform programs work without reform. having to resort to physical abuse and Term Originator(s)/Date imprisonment.2,3 The social psychology litera- ture clearly supports such a view. In fact, this Thought struggle Mao Tse Tung (1929)90 concept is so well-~.nown that it is exemplified in (ssu-hsiangtou-cheng) the old adage "Y, u can attract more flies with Brainwashing Hunter (1951Fs honey than you can with vinegar." The basic Thought reform Lifton (1956)2 effector mechanism of any program of exploita- (ssu-hsiangkai.tsao) tive persuasion involves the manipulation of emotion (eg, fear, guilt, shame, anxiety). The Debility, dependency, and Farber, Harlow, and West dread (DDD) (1957)27 effector of the manipulation is a persuader who seeks to get the persuadee (without the per- Coercive persuasion Schein (1961)3 suadee's knowledge of the real goal or consent Mind control Anonymous (circa 1980) tO the process) to comply with the persuader's Systematic manipulation of Singer(1982)9~ goals in order to gain power, money, labor, or psychological and social whatever else it is the persuader seeks. influence West's early writings showrid that "pain is not Coordinated programs of Ofshe and Singer (1986)ss an exclusive precondition of fear or anxiety". 7 coercive influence and Threats (eg, of loss of emotional support, or of behavioralcontrol eternal damnation) are powerful control mech- Exploitative persuasion Singer and Addis (1992) anisms. West also clearly differentiated the group political indoctrination process known as "thought reform" from forceful interroga- and studied under names such as '~brainwash- tion and torture, which was applied to certain ing,"4s "coercive persuasion,"3 and "thought prisoners of war (POWs) (usually Air Force reform" (see Table 13.2) .2.27 personnel) in ord{:r to secure propaganda state- ments during the Korean War. In his 1963 arti- Coercive Influence and cle for The Encyclopedia of Mental Health ? Behavioral Control West explained: The thought reform technique relies heavily upon The names given to the techniques for coercive small group dynamics, the group structure, the rein- influence and behavioral control are problema- tionship of the leader to the group, the relative initial tic, even though the scientific study and under- psychological isolation of each individual from the standing of them is not. In the current context, other members of the group as individuals, and the brainwashing is probably the least satisfactory evolution of a growing group identity and group name for the phenomenon of apparent mental pressure to bring the tardy or errant members into or behavioral change resulting from programs line .... Thought reform is... defined by the word of coercive influence because of its popularized "indoctrination" in which certain specific ideas and and loose colloquial usage. The term coercive attitudes are inculcated deliberately and without the persuasion, although superior, is also somewhat merits of competitive doctrines being offered. misleading. The word coercive has been mis- The theory of thought reform is based on contrued to imply that physical coercion is re- accepted and decades-old material from the dis- quired, rather than a broader range of social, ciplines of clinical and social psychology. These psychological, economic, and physiological general techniques of social and psychological means that can be used, either individually, or influence, ways of patterning and sequencing in combination, to influence someone to change them, are verified in the scientific litera- his or her behavior. Had Schein3 used a term lure.49-57 such as exploitative persuasion, there might be a Because the terms thought reform, coercive more clearly understood current use of the persuasion, and brainwashing have become so term. intermingled in everyday language that their 134 Thaler Singer and Emmer Addis distinctions are an artifact of history, Ofshe and Recovery of Damages Singerss coined a new term--"coordinated programs of coercive influence and behavior One of West's 12 "Rs"--recovery of dam- control." This term also avoids any erroneous ages--has provided the forum for contr0- historical connotation suggesting that a "gun at versy around the n-,,eaning of thought reform. the head" is necessary to control effectively a In recent years an increasing number of ex-cult members have instigated legal suits against person's decisions, behavior, or expressed atti- tudes. totalist groups, alleging harms they suffered as a result of membership in those organizations. Many situations include planned influence procedures (eg, sales programs, recruitment Many of these Jawsuits have resulted in judg- ment for the plaintiffs, although recovery of programs, political campaigns). }towever, there are specific differences between these and damages is slow because of extended appeals a coordinated program of coercive influence processes that sometimes continue to the US and behavior control (or, as we have suggested Supreme Court. * Naturally, this has caused here, exploitative persuasion). In the latter: concern to the organizations that must pay the damages. Consequently, a concerted effort 1. Intense and frequent attempts and contrived appears to have been undertaken to discredit environmental settings are employed to the theoretical underpinnings of the explana- undermine a person's confidence and j udg- tion of how these organizations entrap and hold ment. their members by totally misrepresenting the 2. Intense and frequent attempts and environ- literature on social influence and thought re- mental manipulation also are used to cause form. At the same time, apparent efforts to dis- people to reevaluate themselves, their credit experts such as West, Singer, Ofshe, values, and their prior conduct in negative Clark, and others have taken the form of attacks ways. on their characters using distortions of truth and 3. Efforts are made to establish considerable outright misreprese,ntations. control over a person's social environment and sources of social support. Isolation from previous social contacts is promoted. Con- Contumely tact with family and friends is abridged, as is contact with persons who do not share Jolly West's career has been noteworthy for group-approved attitudes. Economic and (among other things) his willingness to put other dependence on the group is fostered. himself on the firing line by espousing well- 4. Disconfirming information and nonsupport- reasoned views unpopular at the time (eg, the ing opinions are prohibited in communica- equality of all men and women regardless of tion within the group. Rules exist about race, creed, or color). At least some of these permissible topics to discuss with outsiders. views, however, have eventually become gener- Communication is tightly controlled. ally accepted by society. This is certainly true in 5. Nonphysical punishments are used (eg, the area ofcults and their abuses. ln the process humiliation, loss of privilege, social status of educating fellow professionals and the public changes, guilt manipulation, and other tech- about the techniques used by totalistic cults, niques for creating aversive emotional West has been outspoken. As a result, various arousals). campaigns to discredit him have been con- 6. Social, psychological, and spiritual threats (real or implied) are present, the implica- * Many of these cases are settled out of court in favor lions of which are that failure to adopt the of the plaintiff. As a condition for payment of dam- approved attitude will lead to severe punish- ages by the defendant group to the plaintiff, groups ment or dire consequences (eg, damnation, often insist that the court records be sealed. Thus, the general public is unaware of the extent to which ex- physical or mental illness, drug dependence, cult members have been awarded damages as corn- economic collapse, divorce, failure to find a pensation for harin they suffered from their involve- mate, rejection by the group, etc). ment in totalist groups. 13. Cults, Coercion, and Contumely 135 dueted over the years.* These have included SP (Suppressire Person) Order: Fair Game. May be false charges that he was an operative of the deprived of property or injured by any means by any Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), that he Scientologist without any discipline of the Scien- advocated performing"psychosurgery" on pris- tologist. May be tricked, sued, or lied to, or 0hers, and that he was "antireligious." All of destrøYedfi6* these charges have taken the form of vicious Examples of implementing this policy attacks on his personal and professional lite abound. The Church ofScientologyusesprivate and, for alesser person, would have been insul~-- detectives, attorneys, and Z:he legal system to ing and humiliating. But West's guiding prince- harrass critics in attempts to silence them.67-7ø pie is contained in a framed quotation he keeps Thaler Singer appears 16 have been a systematic in his office: target of harrassment by some groups: Dead rats have been placed carefully on her doorstep; Those who would carry on the great public schemes her home has been vandalized, and she has per- must be proof against the most fatiguing delays, the m0stmortifying disappointments, the most shocking sonally caught a stranger entering her home insults, and worst of all, the presumptuous judgment through a window; dozens of her research inter- 0f the ignorant upon their designs. view tapes have been stolen; she was detained --Edmund Burke (1729-1797) by immigration police in a foreign country on a false report lodged by one of the cults that she Even outrageous lies can be believed, how- was a member of the Irish Republican Army ever. As Hitler said in Mein Kampf, "the (IRA). great masses of the people . . . more easily fall In sum, using "the big lie" in an environment a victim to a big lie than to a little one''64 that promotes "fair game" is the modus oper- Goebbels elaborated when he wrote in Jan- uary 1942, "Propaganda must always be andi of some current grou~js that have much to ú ' ' lose and little to gain by alk,wing their practices essentially simple and repetitive. In the long run, basic results in influencing public opinion to be exposed to the public. Our purpose here will be achieved only by the man who is able to is to expose some of the~ deceptions, distor- teduce problems to the simplest terms and who tions, and dissimulations tlropounded by "cult has the courage to keep forever repeating them apologists. ,,7~ The apparent goal of cult apolo- gists seems to have been to misrepresent the in this simplified form, despite the objections issues, to distort or deny the existence of the of the intellectuals.''65 In sum, if a lie is big scientific and legal literature, to make false enough, told loudly and often enough, people will believe it. Because checking the facts often attributions to critics of totalistic groups, and to requires time and resources, it is easier to use create a false sense of social danger to direct repetition of information as confirmation of attention away from the real dangers inherent in fact. totalistic groups. Perhaps the best current example of the use of institutionalized propaganda to attempt to Deceptions, Distortions, and suppress criticism is found in the Church of Sci- Dissimulations entology's codified principle that any "suppres- sire person" (ie, one who speaks out against the For brevity, in the following discussion we use Church) is "fair game" to be viiifled, pilloried, the descriptor "distortion" to introduce each or worse in an attempt to prevent that persons's criticism in the future. Scientology's "Ethics" * In 1968 and again in 1970, the Church of Scientolo- course includes the following policy: gy issued a new order stating that "Fair Game" would no longer appear on any written policy documents. However, the "Fair Game" policy appears to con- 'As noted in this chapter and elsewhere,59-63 others tinue as a means to suppress criticism of the church. who have bravely spoken out about the dangers of As recently as 1984 and 1989, justices in US and Lon- totalistic groups have also been recipients of decep- don courts ruled that "Fair Game" practices had been lions, distortions of fact, and dissimulations, all de- applied to plaintiffs in' cases that appeared before signed to discredit them. them.63 136 Thaler Singer and Emmer Addis issue. The distortions listed here are merely ex- had been weak, passive, and cowardly. West amples of attempts in the literature and in pub- cited numerous studies indicating that "Accord- lic forums to confuse the issues raised by the ing to all available evidence, the behavior of the practices of many exploitalive groups. Wcst's [American] lighting men in Korea during com- conceptualization of these practices as public bat and during subsequent captivity upheld the health issues is a helpful reference point. military and moral sta~dards of our fighting forces at least as well as it has in any previous Distortion 1: Brainwashing Does Not Exist, war. ,,32 or if It Does, It Cannot Be Proved The same author says, ". . . Singer is arguing that brainwashed cult converts have The assertion that brainwashing does not exist been hypnotized and remain in hypnotic trance or that it cannot be proved is a core, though through their stay in the cult" (p 160).72 In fact, incorrect, assertion. This chapter has already Singer does not believe this and has never made reviewed the scientific basis for what we are call- such a statement, in print or verbally. ing "exploitative persuasion." It would be very easy if the "technology" of thought reform Distortion 2: If Brainwashing Does Exist in could be reduced to a simple equation that says Cults, Itls Suffered Voluntarily "If you do a, b will happen; if you do x, y will follow." However, we are dealing with intra- In addition to belying scientific documentation psychic and psychosocial aspects of being hu- to the contrary, the assertion that brainwashing, man, and such reductionist approaches are if it does exist in cults, is suffered voluntarily simplistic and impossible. The vast literature puts the action in the transaction between cultic already cited that, together, makes up the systems and their members completely on the theory of thought reform has a significant Corn- shoulders of the individ,~al member. Thii era- mort thread; it documents techniques that in- phasis accomplishes three goals for the cults. fiuence behavior andattitudes. These techniques First, it avoids assigning group or leader re- do not depend on physical coercion to effect the sponsibility for building systems of influence behavioral or attitudinalchanges. that produce and guide the unethical (and The scientific and anecdotal documentation sometimes illegal) acts perpetrated by group of techniques that can influence behavior and members, including those related to charity attitudes is so threatening to some groups that status and tax exemptions, labor and social their representatives have launched an un- security laws, infringement of personal free- founded and contrived campaign to get the doms, physical and psychological damage, American Psychological Association and the fund-raising practices, deception in recruitment American Sociological Association to declare and immigration laws, spurious lawsuits, and that coercive persuasion and thought reform do others.47 not exist. Cult apologists allege that experts on Second, it blames the victim for actions he or exploitative persuasion are unreliable; there- she would not have taken had it not been for the fore, they (the apologists) must reinterpret influence ofthegroup. what the experts mean. In doing so, cult apolo- Third, it avoids taking group responsibility gists rewrite history and distort facts to sup- for deceptions in recruitment and implies that port their contention. Two (of many) exam- people seek out totalist~c groups to join, an pies follow. implication that victims of this deception One author blatantly misrepresented the vociferously deny. ; written record when he wrote, "In discussing the brainwashing theory of Communist in- Distortion3: Belief and Behavior Cannot fluenee on Koreaan [sic] P.O. W.'s, [LJ] West Be Separated From Each Other in Scientific repeatedly argued that this theory was a 'hoax'" Examination (p 143).72 In fact, West32 was not stating that brainwashing was a hoax but that the "hoax" The assertion that b~lief and behavior cannot be was the myth that American military personnel separated from each other in scientific examina- 13. Cults, Coercion, and Contumely 137 lion is used to attempt to obfuscate the well- Distortion 6: Critics of Religious Cults Must documented scientific .literature on social in- BeAntireligious fluence and the centuries-old legal separation of belief from behavior. Once more the distinction between creed and deed is essential. The First Amendment clearly Distortion 4: New Religions Hold Their distinguishes between the protection of belief Converts by Nothing More 77tan Preaching and the protection of conduct.TM Protection of belief is absolute, but conduct must follow legal The Unification Church (whose members are rules. Thus, criticism of cultic behavior that is often called "Moonies") preaches "heavenly illegal or detrimental to the health and welfare deception "; the International Society for Krish- of cult members does not attack a person's right na Consciousness (whose members are known to believe. as the Hare Krishna) preaches "transcendental trickery.''43 Both of these practices are the jus- Distortion 7: Any AberrantAct by a tification for lying to potential recruits and to Mernber of a Cultic Group Is the those from whom members are soliciting funds. Responsibility of the b~dividual; the Are these concepts merely beliefs that are Group Process Is Irrelevant preached? Or are they instructions to behave in deceptive ways? The assertion that any aberrant act by a member Of equal interest in examining the distor- of a cultic group is the responsibility of the indi- lion that new religions hold their converts by vidual, and that the group process is irrelevant, nothing more than preaching is: What is the belies the facts and blames the victim again. It emotional goal of the preaching? Congregation- seeks to ignore the control held by leaders over oriented preaching is designed to benefit posi- the members, thereby avoiding ultimate re- lively the listeners' earthly and spiritual lives. sponsibility. It explains away the Jonestown Exploitative preaching, in contrast, creates massacre as "revolutionary suicide,"75 as if strong feelings of guilt, anxiety, and fear to none of the 912 followers were coerced to drink rnanipulate the congregation for the preacher's the poison. It ignores the armed guards, the benefit. brutality, the actual homicides, and the fear en- demic to the members of the People's Temple. Distortion 5: Cult Is a Pejorative Term and This assertion ignores cult group-promoted Should Not Be Used to Describe "New murders76,77 and attempted murders ,78 many of Religious Movements" which were instigated by the cult leader. It ignores leader-required forced prostitution The term cult is merely descriptive of the power practiced as a means to gain new members and structure and the control of decision making in a funds.79 It even ignores children beaten to group; it has nothing to do with belief systems, death in cults.sø,s~ religious or otherwise. Further, many cults are not religious in content, but are based on Distortion8: Charges ofCultAbusesbyEx- psychological, political, health fad, or other mernbers Are Lies and Distortions of Truth, themes. So why are cult supporters so con- Whereas CttrrentMembersAreAlways cerned? The answer may be in the classic 1984.73 One of OrweWs main themes in his Truthful novel was that if language can be controlled, Stories related by cult members after they have anything can be controlled, including behavior; separated from the group consistently reveal therefore, control of language can enable one to harsh and bizarre conditions. They also point rule. Cults understand this principle well, as clearly to the power cult leaders exert. Cult sup- seen in the consistent practice by cults to rede- porters must deny these stories; if they do not, fine commonly us,~d words and to create new their silence validates the stories. Thus, the ones. Their efforts to ban the term cult and re- false accusation that ex-members fabricate label such groups appear to be a Madison serves the purposes of the cults and their Avenue-type attempt at image improvement. supporters well. However, practices such as 138 Ttialer Singer and Emmer Addis "heavenly deception" and "transcendental restrictions on, religions cults will result in trickery" would make one suspect that projec- witch-hunts against unpopular religions. AI- tion is behind this often-repeated myth. though successful criminal prosecutions and the enforcement ot certain statutes have inter- Distortion 9: Psychiatrists, Psychologists, fered with various r~ligious practices (eg, Syna- SocialScientists, and Attorneys Who non's leader, Charles Diederich, was prose- Participate in Legal Actions Against Cults cuted successfully for implementing Synanon's and Their Leaders Make Huge Sums of "new religious posture," which called for beat- Money From These Activities ing Synanon's supposed enemies; Reverend Moon has been iailed for tax evasion; the Mor- Rather than speculate on why it is alleged that mons have been prevented from practicing expert witnesses testifying against cults and polygamy; Jehovah's Witnesses have been their leaders make huge sums of money, we given court-ordered blood transfusions, which note that the facts are clear. In most cases with were proscribed by their faith, etc), and which we are familiar, attorneys representing although successful tort actions have been ex-members do so on a pro bono or contingency brought against the Hare Krishna, Church of basis. If they did not, the cases could not pro- Scientology, Church Universal and Trium- ceed. In the cases with which we are familiar, phant, and other groups, no witch-hunt has en- expert witnesses who are mental health profes- sued, and there is no reason to believe that one sionals usually charge their normal hourly rates will in the future. This myth is an excellent ex- for therapy; social scientists charge their usual ample of "the big lie," which preys on people's hourly rates for consulting. In both cases, these emotions. professionals also have downward sliding scales for those who have less financial resources, even Distortion 12: There Is a Large, PoWerful providing free services when needed. "Anticult Movement" in the United States Distortion 10: Criminaland TortActions Contrary to the distortion that a large, powerful Against Religious Cults Violate theFirst "anticult movement (ACM)" operates in the Arnendment Provision for Separation of United States, the few grassroots organizations Church and State (eg, Cult Awareness Network and its affiliates, While using the First Amendment to try to pre.- the American Family Foundation) are constant- vent the exposure of wrongful acts under the ly threatened with dissolution, which is due to guise of religion, these same critics eschew the lack of funds. In each case, the organizations First Amendment's protection of speech when have only a few full-time paid employees. The rest of the activities are conducted by volunteers they attempt to silence those who are critical of who work at non-cult-related jobs for their them. In any case, as noted several times in this livelihood. The implication that these organiza- chapter, the criticisms of totalistic cults relate only to their practices, which are not protected tions represent a large and powerful network that threatens totalistic groups whose tenets re- absolutely by the First Amendment.TM Legal quire members to bring in large amounts of actions against such groups, whether civil or money that can pay for, among other things, criminal, are focused on issues of conduct, not belief, even though cult supporters write as if huge attorneys' fees, is not supported. beliefs were on trial .72,82 Distortion 13: There Is a Small Vigilante- Distortion 11: Successful Criminal and Tort Like Antireligious Band of Persons That Actions Against, or Legal Restrictions on, Mistakenly or Cynically Criticizes or Religious Cults Will Result in Witch-Hunts Makes up Accusations Against Cults Against UnpopularReligions The dissimulation that a small, vigilante-like History does not bear out the claim that success- antireligious band of persons mistakenly or ful criminal and tort actiotas against, ~n' Icg~fi cyt~ically criticizcs or makes up accusations 13. Cults, Coercion, and Contumely 139 against cults is a direct contradiction to the pre- comfort, and support he could give to those suf- coding one. To keep it going, the apologists fering from psychological, psychiatric, or social must ignore (1) consistent reports by the press ills. He has not shied away from speaking out on and other sources of cult abuses;75-sl (2) mil- issues to which he felt he must bring reason, lions of parents represented by the National humane treatment, honesty, and fairness, even Parent-Teacher Association (PTA), which, in at the risk of physical harm to himself. One of 1982, resolved to provide educational programs West's greatest contributions has been to dem- about cults in the public schools; (3) the 1984 onstrate repeatedly how the role and perspec- resolution of the European Parliament that ex- live of a physician as a healer and scientist can pressed concern about a comprehensive list of synthesize psychological, social, and political cult-related activities; and (4) other written ex- issues. pressions of concern by religious and secular This chapter discussed exploitative cults, the organizations.83,s4 scientific basis of psychological coercion (ex- ploitative persuasion), and cult-related myths Distortion 14: AnticultHysteria Has Swept (some of which take the form of contumely the Nation against critics). Exploitative cults do exist. The issues related to their existence (eg, help for The myth that anticult hysteria has swept the victims, lies and distortions of fact about cult nation also belongs in the "big lie" category. As critics by cult defenders, exposure and prosecu- anyone who brings up the topic of cults knows, tion of illegal acts perpetrated by totalistic the most predictable and consistent question groups that practice exploitalive persuasion, that is asked is, "Are cults still a problem?" Un- and the further study of exploitative persuasion fortunately, the efforts of cult sympathizers in today's environment) are all parts of a com- often deflect attention away from concrete plicatedpsychosociopoliticalarena. West'scon- problems, especially from the sometimes devas- tributions to this challenging and controversial tating effects of life in destructive cults on ad- arena result from the nexus of three of his life- herents and their families during and after long professional concerns: studies of the phy- membership.85-89 Not everyone who leaves siology of emotions, studies of how human such groups suffers the same kind or extent of interactions have an impact on physiological problems when reentering mainstream society. reactions and lead toward health or illness, and Individuals, their experiences, and their re- his sense of social responsibility. His rational sponses vary. However, the continuous stream conceptualization of cults as a public health of people who appear in cult clinics or who seek issue provides us with a dispassionate, logical, help from psychologists, psychiatrists, pastors and legitimate framework for thinking about and rabbis, other ex-members, counselors, and what steps a society can take to deal with the teachers suggests that there are enough victims issues involved. West's own words best summa- of exploitative groups to demand a helpful re- rize his work and his perspective; they also ex- sponse rather than a condemnation. The recent press the views of others who are involved in public exposure and trials of a number of televi- giving aid to ex-members and their families and sion evangelists' deceits, scams, and shennani- in trying to prevent cult-related harms before gans have alerted many citizens that cult decep- they occur. lions, abuses, and illegalities are still occurring. Without apology, as a physician, I look at the cult problem with health and disease in mind. Many peo- Conclusions and Summary pie in cults are at risk. Some are already sick. Some are dying. Some are dead. The stress upon their fami- lies generates additional casualties. A public health Some people attempt to go through their lives strategy is called for. It is my profound hope that such with low profii,~s by avoiding conflict. Some a strategy... will soon be put into effect. Great sur- eyen avoid reaching out to help others because fering might be prevented as a result. their act might stir controversy. Dr Louis Jolyon The persuasive techniques used by Iotalist cults to West has never hesitated to bring whatever aid, bind and exploit their members, while not magical or 140 Thaler Singer and Emmer Addis infallible, are sufficiently powerful and effective to abnormal anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry. 1988; assure the recruitment of a significant percentage of October suppl:5-6. those approached, and the retention of a significant 10. West LJ. Psychophysiology of hypnosis. JAMA. percentage of those enlisted .... 1960; 172:672-675. Such cults are a genuine menace to society because 11. West LJ. Sensory iso~:ttion. In: Deutsch A, ed. they cause harm to persons, families, and the corn- The Encyclopedia of Mental Health. New York: munity. Whatever good they do could be done as well Franklin Watts; 1963;5: 1886-1895. or better by other organizations (i.e., benign reli- 12. West LJ, Deckert GH. Dangers of hypnosis. gious groups, legitimate health professions, arid so JAMA. 1963;192:9-12. on) that do not pose the same types of risks to indi- 13. West LJ. Dissociative reaction. In: Freedman viduals and to the public. AM, Kaplan HI, ~ds. Comprehensive Textbook The extent of cult-related harm during the past of Psychiatry. Baltimore Md: Williams & Wil- 20 years is sufficient to justify describing it as an kins; 1967:885-899. epidemic, and calling for a public health approach to 14. West LJ. Illusions and hallucinations. Encyclo- the problem. paedia Britannica. 15th ed. Macropaedia. Chica- The exercise of such an approach should reduce go: Encyclopaedia Britannica; 1974;9:240-247. the number and power of cults, and thus reduce the 15. Brauchi JT, West LJ. Sleep deprivation. JAMA. amount of harm they do, without posing any risk to 1959;171:11-14. freedom of religion or to nontotalist organizations. 16. West LJ, Janszen HH, Lester BK, Cornelison (pp 188_189)47 FS. The psychosis of sleep deprivation. In: San- kar S, ed. Some Biological Aspects of Schizo- phrenic Behavior. Ann New York Acad Sci. References 1962;96:28-32. 17. West LJ. Personality changes linked to sleep de- 1. American Family Foundation. Cultism; A Con- privation. Psychiatr Prog. 1966;March-April:3, ference for Scholars and Policy Makers. Weston, 7. Mass: American Family Foundation; 1985. 18. West LJ. Psychopathology produced by sleep de- 2. Lifton RJ. Thought Reform and the Psychology privation. In: Kety SS, liverts EV, Willjams HL, of 7~talisnt: A Study of Brainwasltittg itt Red eds. Sleep and Altered'~tates of Consciousness. China. New York: WW Norton; 1963. Baltimore, Md: Willjams & Wilkins; 1967:535- 3. Schein Ell. Coercive Persuasion. New York: 558. WW Norton; 1961. 19. West LJ Hallucinations. New York: Grune & 4. Lifton RJ. The Future of lmmortality and Other Stratton; 1962. Essays for a Nuclear Age. New York: Basic 20. Siegel R, West LJ, eds. Hallucinations: Be- Books; 1987:15. ttavior, Experiettce, Tlteory. New York: John 5. West LJ, Greenblatt M, eds. Explorations in the Wiley & Sons; 1975. Physiology of Emotions. Psychiatric Research 21. West IJ. Discussion. In: AbHtmson I IA. ctl. The Report No. 12. Washington, DC: American Use of LSD in Psychotherapy: Transactions of Psychiatric Association; 1960. a Conference on d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide 6. West LI, Niell KC, Hardy JD. Effects of hypno~ (LSD-25). Madison, WI: Madison Printing; tic suggestions on pain perception and galvanic 1960. skin response. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiat. 22. Mandell A, West l_J. Hallucinogens. In: Freed- 1952;68:549-560. man AM, Kaplan HI, eds. Comprehensive Text- 7. West LJ, Father IE. The role of pain in emotion- book oJ' Psychiatry. Baltimore, Md: Willjams & al development. In: West L J, Greenblatt M, eds. Wilkins; 1967:247-253. Explorations in the Physiology of Emotions. 23. McGlothlin WH, West LJ. The marijuana prob- Psychiatric Research Report No. 12. Washing- lem: An overview. Am J Psychiatry. 1968; ton, DC; American Psychiatric Association; 125:370-378. 1960:119-126. 24. West LJ. The meaning of hallucinations. In: 8. West LJ, Coburn K. Posttraumatic anxiety, In: Hach F, ed. Diagnostics and Psychopathology. Pasnau RO, ed. Diagnosis and Treatment of New York: WWNorton; 1987:49-62. Anxiety Disorders. Washington, DC: American 25. West I_J. Medical and psychiatric considerations Psychiatric Press; 1984:79-113. in survival training. In: Report of the Special 9. West LJ. Distinguishing normal fears from Stu~ly Grottp on Sarvival Traittittg (AFR 190-16). 13. Cults, Coercion, and Contumely 141 Lackland Air Force Base, Tex: Air Force Per- 41. West LJ, Delgado R. Psyching out the cults' col- sonnel and Training. Research Centers; 1956. lective mania. Los Angeles Times November 26, 26. West LJ. United States Air Force prisoners of 1978. Opinion Section. the Chinese communists. Methods of forceful in- 42. West LJ. Cults, liberty, and mind control. In: doctrination: Observations and interviews. In: Rapoport DC, Alexander Y, eds. The Rationa- Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry (GAP) lization of Terrorism. Frederick, Md: Alethia Symposium No. 4. 1957:270-284. New York: Books, University Publications of America; Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry. 1982: 101-107. 27. Farber IE, Harlow HF, West LJ. Brainwashing, 43. Bromley DG, Shupe AD. Strange Gods. Boston: conditioning, and DDD (debility, dependency, Beacon Press; 1981. and dread). ~ociomet.ry. 1957:20:271-285. 44. Barker E. The Making of a Moonie. London: 28. West LJ. P3ychiatric aspects of training for Blackwell; 1984. honorable survival as a prisoner of war. Am J 45. Galanter M. Cults: Faith, Healing and Coercion. Psychiatry. 1958;115:329-336. New York: Oxford University Press; 1989. 29. West LJ. Some psychiatric aspects of civil de- 46. West LJ. Die Kulte als Problem der offentlichen fense. In: Baker GW, Cottrell LS, eds. Be- Gesundheit. [Cults: A public health approach.] havioral Science and Civil Defense. Washington, In: Karbe KG, Muller-Kuppers M, eds. Destruk- DC: National Academy of Sciences-National tive Kulte. Gottingen, Germany: Verlag fiir Research Council; 1962:81-91. Medizinische Psychologie; 1983:47-64. 30. West LJ. Brainwashing. In: Deutsch A, ed. The 47. West LJ. Persuasive techniques in contemporary Encyclopedia of Mental Health. New York: cults. In: Galanter M, ed. Cults and New Reli- Franklin Watts; 1963;1:250-257. gious Movements. Washington, DC: American 31. West LJ. Psychiatry, "brainwashing," and the Psychiatric Association Press; 1989:165-192. American character. Am J Psychiatry. 1964; 48. Hunter E. Brain-Washing in Red China. New 120:842-850. York: Vanguard Press; 1951. 32. West LJ. Exposing the myth that Korea GIs 49. Festinger LH, Riecken W, Schachter S. When weren't tough. New York Herald Tribune. April Prophecy Fails. Minneapolis: University of Min- 12, 1964. nesota Press; 1956. 33. West LJ. Effects of isolation on the evidence of 50. Biderman AD, Zimmer H. Manipulation of Hu- detainees. In: Bell AN, Mackie RDA, eds. De- man Behavior. New York: John Wiley & Sons; tention and S zcurity Legislation in South Africa. 1961. Durban, So:~th Africa: University of Natal; 51. Brown JAC. Techniques of Persuasion: From 1985:69-80. Propaganda to Brainwashing. Baltimore, Md: 34. West LJ. The therapy of human injustice. In: Penguin Books; 1963. Masserman J, ed. Current Psychiatric Therapies. 52. Frank JD. Persuasion and Healing. New York: New York: Grune & Stratton; 1962;2:270-272. McGraw-Hill; 1961. 35. West Lj. The Othello syndrome. Contemporary 53. Milgram S. Obedience to Authority. New York: Psychoanalysis. 1968;4:103-110. Harper & Row; 1974. 36. West LJ, Allen JR. Three rebellions: Red, 54. Hyde MO. Brainwashing and Other Forms of black, and green. In: Masserman J, ed. Science Mind Control. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1977. and Psychoanalysis: The Dynamics of Dissent. 55. Zimbardo P, Ebbeson E, Maslach C. Influencing New York: Grune & Stratton; 1968;13:99-119. Attitudes and Changing Behavior: An Introduc- 37. West LJ. Psychiatry and civil rights. Am J tion toMethod, Theory, and Applications of So- Psychother. 1968;22:577-584. cial Control and Personal Power. Reading, MA: 38. Allen 3 R, West LJ. Flight from violence: Hippies Addison-Wesley; 1977. and the green 'rebellion. Am J Psychiatry. 56. Enroth R. The Lure of the Cults. Chappaqua, 1968:125:364--370. NY: Christian Herald Books; 1979. 39. West LJ. lithical psychiatry and biosocial 57. Cialdini R. Influence: How and Why People humanism. Ant J Psychiatry. 1969;126:226-230. Agree to Things. New York: William Morrow; 40. West LJ, Singer MT. Cults, quacks, and non- 1984. professional psychotherapies. In: Kaplan HI. 58. Ofshe R, Singer MT. Attacks on peripheral vet- Freedman AM, Sadock BC, eds. Comprehensive sus central elements of self and the impact of Textbook of Psychiatry. Baltimore: Williams & thought reforming techniques. Cultic Stud J. Wilkins; 1980;3:3245-3258. 1986;3:3-24. 142 Thaler Singer and Emn~er Addis 59. Cooper P. The Scandal of Scientology. New 77. Yee L. Cultisis' statements recount killing in York: Tower Publications; 1971. Kirtland barn. Cleveland Plain Dealer. February 60. Wallis R. The Road to Total Freedom: A Socio- 2, 1990. logical Analysis of Scientology. New York: 78. Mitchell D, Mitchell C, Ofshe R. The Light on Columbia University Press; 1977. Synanon. New York: Seaview; 1980. 61. Singer MT. Cults, research, and harassment. In- 79. Davis D(LB). The Child; en of God: The Inside vited address, meeting of the American Soc~o- Story. Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan Books; logical Association; August 1979; Boston. 1984. 62. Hassan S. Cornbatting Cult Mind Control. 80. Zito T. Stonegate discipline. Washington Post. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press; 1988. November 26, 1982. 63. Atack J. A Piece of Blue sky: Scientology, Di,:ne- 81. Ecclesia: A child's behting death reveals abuse in tics and L Ron Hubbard Exposed. New York: Oregon cult. Cult Awareness Network News. Lyle Stuart/Carol Publishing; 1990. November 1988. 64. Hitler A, Manheim R, ed. Mein Kampf. Boston: 82. Fisher BA. Tort law as an ideological weapon: A Houghton Miflin; 1971. short history of tort in the "cult wars." Tort and 65. Manveil R. Dr Goebbels: His Life and Death. Religion. Chicago: American Bar Association; New York: Simon & Schuster; 1960. 1989. 66. Church of Scientology, HCO (Hubbard Com- 83. The Vatican Report: Sects or New Religious munication Office). Policy letter. Issued for Movements: A Pastoral Challenge. Washington, penalties for lower conditions. October 18, 1967. DC: United States Catholic Conference; 1986. 67. Who are the Scientologists? Washington Post. 84. Cults, evangelicals, and the ethics of social in- February 20, 1985:A20. fluence. CulticStudJ. 1985;2:231-405. 68. Sappell J, Welkos RW. On the offensive against 85. Addis M, Schulman-Miller J, Lightman M. The an array of suspected fores. Los Angeles Times. Cult Clinic helps families in crisis. Social Case- June 29, 1990;1:48-50. work. 1984;65(9):515-522. 69. Burton TM. Anti-depression drug of Eli Lilly 86. Singer MT. Consultation: with families of cul- loses sales after attack by sect. Wall Street Jour- tists. In: Wynne LC, McDaniel SH, Weber TT, nal. April 19, 1991:1. eds. Systems Consultation. A New Perspective for 70. Behar R. The thriving cult of greed and power. Family Therapy. New York: Guilford Press; Time. May 6, 1991:50-57. 1986:270-283. 71. West LJ. Contemporary cults: Utopian image, 87. Ross JC, Langone MD. Cults: What Parents infernal reality. Center Magazine. 1982;15(2): Should Know. Weston, Mass: American Family 10-13. Foundation; 1988. 72. Anthony D. Evaluating key testimony in trials 88. Andres R, Lane JR. Cults and Consequences: involving brainwashing allegations against reli- The Definitive Handbook. Los Angeles: Jewish gious movements. In: Tort and Religion. Chica- Federation Council of Greater Los Angeles; go: American Bar Association; 1989. 1988. 73. Orwell G. 1984. New York: New American Lib- ,~9. Singer MT, Ofshe R. Thought reform programs rary; 1984. and the production of psychiatric casualties. 74. Delgado R. Religious totalism: Gentle and un- Psychiatr Ann. 1990;20(4): 188-193. gentle persuasion under the First Amendment. 90. Chen TEH. The Thought Reform of the Chin- South CalifLaw Rev. 1977;51:1-98. ese Intelectuals Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ 75. Reiterman T, Jacobs J. Raven: The Untold Story Press 1990 (Oxford Press 1960). of the Rev Jim Jones and His People. New York: 91. Singer MT. The Systematic Manipulation of EPDutton;1982. Psychological and Social Influence. Invited 76. HubnerJ, Gruson L. Monkey on a Stick: Murder, address, Cult Awareness Network, annual meet- Madness, and the Hare Krishnas. New York: ing, Washington, D.C., October23, 1982. 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